Home  ›  Art From the Neolithic Period to the Art of the Ancient Near East

Art From the Neolithic Period to the Art of the Ancient Near East

Written By Thursday 5 May 2022 Add Comment Edit

Fine art produced in preliterate cultures

Not to be dislocated with Paleoart.

In the history of art, prehistoric art is all fine art produced in preliterate, prehistorical cultures get-go somewhere in very late geological history, and generally standing until that culture either develops writing or other methods of tape-keeping, or makes significant contact with another culture that has, and that makes some tape of major historical events. At this point ancient art begins, for the older literate cultures. The stop-date for what is covered past the term thus varies greatly betwixt different parts of the world.[1]

The earliest human being artifacts showing evidence of workmanship with an artistic purpose are the subject field of some debate. It is clear that such workmanship existed by twoscore,000 years ago in the Upper Paleolithic era, although it is quite possible that it began earlier. In September 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the earliest known cartoon past Homo sapiens, which is estimated to be 73,000 years erstwhile, much earlier than the 43,000 years old artifacts understood to exist the earliest known modern homo drawings constitute previously.[2]

Engraved shells created by Human erectus dating as far back as 500,000 years ago accept been plant, although experts disagree on whether these engravings tin be properly classified every bit 'fine art'.[3] From the Upper Paleolithic through to the Mesolithic, cave paintings and portable fine art such as figurines and beads predominated, with decorative figured workings besides seen on some utilitarian objects. In the Neolithic evidence of early pottery appeared, as did sculpture and the construction of megaliths. Early rock fine art also first appeared during this period. The advent of metalworking in the Bronze Age brought additional media bachelor for use in making art, an increase in stylistic multifariousness, and the creation of objects that did not accept any obvious function other than fine art. Information technology also saw the development in some areas of artisans, a class of people specializing in the production of art, as well equally early writing systems. By the Atomic number 26 Age, civilizations with writing had arisen from Ancient Egypt to Aboriginal Communist china.

Many ethnic peoples from around the world connected to produce artistic works distinctive to their geographic area and culture, until exploration and commerce brought tape-keeping methods to them. Some cultures, notably the Maya civilisation, independently developed writing during the fourth dimension they flourished, which was then later on lost. These cultures may be classified every bit prehistoric, especially if their writing systems take not been deciphered.

Paleolithic era [edit]

Lower and Middle Paleolithic [edit]

The earliest undisputed art originated with the Human being sapiens Aurignacian archaeological culture in the Upper Paleolithic. However, there is some testify that the preference for the aesthetic emerged in the Middle Paleolithic, from 100,000 to 50,000 years ago. Some archaeologists take interpreted certain Middle Paleolithic artifacts as early examples of artistic expression.[v] [half-dozen] The symmetry of artifacts, evidence of attention to the item of tool shape, has led some investigators to excogitate of Acheulean mitt axes and especially laurel points as having been produced with a caste of artistic expression.

Claimed "Oldest known drawing by man easily", discovered in Blombos Cave in S Africa. Estimated to be 73,000 years old.[2]

Similarly, a zigzag engraving supposedly made with a shark tooth on a freshwater Pseudodon vanquish DUB1006-fL around 500,000 years ago (i.e. well into the Lower Paleolithic), associated with Homo erectus, could be the earliest prove of artistic action, but the actual intent behind this geometric ornament is not known.[4]

There are other claims of Middle Paleolithic sculpture, dubbed the "Venus of Tan-Tan" (earlier 300 kya)[7] and the "Venus of Berekhat Ram" (250 kya). In 2002 in Blombos cave, situated in South Africa, stones were discovered engraved with grid or cross-hatch patterns, dated to some 70,000 years ago. This suggested to some researchers that early Homo sapiens were capable of brainchild and product of abstract art or symbolic fine art. Several archaeologists including Richard Klein are hesitant to accept the Blombos caves equally the first example of actual art.

In September 2018 the discovery in Southward Africa of the primeval known cartoon by Homo sapiens was announced, which is estimated to be 73,000 years old, much earlier than the 43,000 years old artifacts understood to exist the earliest known mod human drawings found previously.[2] The drawing shows a crosshatched pattern fabricated up of ix fine lines. The sudden termination of all of the lines on the fragment edges indicate that the pattern originally extended over a larger surface.[8] It is likewise estimated that the pattern was about probable more complex and structured in its entirety than shown on the discovered surface area. Initially, when this drawing was found, there was much debate. To bear witness that this drawing was created by Human Sapiens, French team members who specialized in chemical analysis of pigments, reproduced the aforementioned lines using a variety of techniques.[9] They ended that the lines making up the drawing were intentional and were virtually probable made with ocher. This discovery adds further dimensions to understanding the behavior and knowledge of early human being sapiens.

Neanderthals may have made fine art. Painted designs in the caves of La Pasiega (Cantabria), a hand stencil in Maltravieso (Extremadura), and red-painted speleothems in Ardales (Andalusia) are dated to 64,800 years agone, predating by at to the lowest degree twenty,000 years the arrival of modern humans in Europe.[x] [11] In July 2021, scientists reported the discovery of a bone carving, one of the world's oldest works of art, made by Neanderthals about 51,000 years agone.[12] [13]

Upper Paleolithic [edit]

In Nov 2018, scientists reported the discovery of the oldest known figurative art painting, over forty,000 (perchance every bit old as 52,000) years one-time, of an unknown animate being, in the cave of Lubang Jeriji Saléh on the Indonesian island of Kalimantan.[xiv] [15]

Some of the oldest undisputed works of figurative art were institute in the Schwäbische Alb, Baden-Württemberg, Deutschland. The primeval of these, the Venus figurine known as the Venus of Hohle Fels and the Lion-man figurine, date to some 40,000 years ago.

Further depictional art from the Upper Palaeolithic flow (broadly 40,000 to ten,000 years ago) includes cave painting (eastward.g., those at Chauvet, Altamira, Pech Merle, Arcy-sur-Cure and Lascaux) and portable art: Venus figurines like the Venus of Willendorf, equally well as beast carvings like the Swimming Reindeer, Wolverine pendant of Les Eyzies, and several of the objects known equally bâtons de commandement.

Paintings in Pettakere cave on the Indonesian island of Sulawesi are up to twoscore,000 years old, a similar date to the oldest European cavern fine art, which may suggest an older common origin for this blazon of art, maybe in Africa.[xvi]

Awe-inspiring open-air fine art in Europe from this period includes the rock-art at Côa Valley and Mazouco in Portugal, Domingo García and Siega Verde in Spain, and Rocher gravé de Fornols [fr] in France.

A cave at Turobong in South Korea containing human remains has been found to contain carved deer bones and depictions of deer that may exist as much equally forty,000 years old.[17] Petroglyphs of deer or reindeer constitute at Sokchang-ri may also date to the Upper Paleolithic. Potsherds in a style reminiscent of early Japanese work have been constitute at Kosan-ri on Jeju island, which, due to lower ocean levels at the time, would have been accessible from Japan.[18]

The oldest petroglyphs are dated to approximately the Mesolithic and late Upper Paleolithic boundary, about 10,000 to 12,000 years ago. The primeval undisputed African stone art dates back near 10,000 years. The first naturalistic paintings of humans found in Africa date back almost 8,000 years apparently originating in the Nile River valley, spread as far west every bit Mali about 10,000 years agone. Noted sites containing early on art include Tassili n'Ajjer in southern Algeria, Tadrart Acacus in Libya (A Unesco World Heritage site), and the Tibesti Mountains in northern Republic of chad.[nineteen] Stone carvings at the Wonderwerk Cavern in Due south Africa accept been dated to this age.[20] Contentious dates as far dorsum as 29,000 years have been obtained at a site in Tanzania. A site at the Apollo 11 Cavern circuitous in Namibia has been dated to 27,000 years.

Göbekli Tepe in Turkey has circles of massive T-shaped stone pillars dating dorsum to the tenth–eighth millennium BCE; the world's oldest known megaliths. Many of the pillars are busy with abstract, enigmatic pictograms and carved fauna reliefs.

Asia [edit]

Asia was the cradle for several pregnant civilizations, virtually notably those of Prc and South Asia. The prehistory of east asia is especially interesting, as the relatively early introduction of writing and historical tape-keeping in China has a notable touch on on the immediately surrounding cultures and geographic areas. Little of the very rich traditions of the art of Mesopotamia counts as prehistoric, every bit writing was introduced and so early on in that location, but neighbouring cultures such as Urartu, Luristan and Persia had pregnant and complex artistic traditions.

A possible representation of a "yogi" or "proto-Shiva", 2600–1900 BCE

Azerbaijan [edit]

The Gobustan National Park reserve located at the south-east of the Greater Caucasus Mountains in Azerbaijan, sixty km abroad from Baku date back more than 12 m years ago. The reserve has more than half-dozen,000 rock carvings depicting mostly hunting scenes, human and beast figures. At that place are also longship illustrations similar to Viking ships. Gobustan is also characterized by its natural musical rock called Gavaldash (tambourine stone).[21] [22] [23] [24] [25] [ self-published source? ]

Indian sub-continent [edit]

The primeval Indian paintings were the rock paintings of prehistoric times, the petroglyphs as found in places similar the Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka, and some of them are dated to circa 8,000 BC.[26] [27] [28] [29] [xxx] The Indus Valley culture produced fine small postage stamp seals and sculptures, and may have been literate, but after its collapse in that location are relatively few artistic remains until the literate period, probably every bit perishable materials were used.

China [edit]

Prehistoric artwork such as painted pottery in Neolithic China tin be traced dorsum to the Yangshao culture and Longshan civilisation of the Yellow River valley. During China'south Bronze Historic period, Chinese of the ancient Shang Dynasty and Zhou Dynasty produced multitudes of Chinese ritual bronzes, which are elaborate versions of ordinary vessels and other objects used in rituals of ancestor veneration, decorated with taotie motifs and by the late Shang Chinese bronze inscriptions. Discoveries in 1987 in Sanxingdui in central China revealed a previously unknown pre-literate Bronze Age civilization whose artefacts included spectacular very big bronze figures (example left), and which appeared culturally very different from the gimmicky belatedly Shang, which has always formed part of the account of the continuous tradition of Chinese culture.

Japan [edit]

According to archeological evidence, the Jōmon people in ancient Japan were among the first to develop pottery, dated from the 11th millennium BCE. With growing composure, the Jōmon created patterns past impressing the wet clay with braided or unbraided cord and sticks.

Korea [edit]

A Korean Neolithic pot plant in Busan, 3500 BCE

The earliest examples of Korean art consist of Stone Age works dating from 3000 BCE. These mainly consist of votive sculptures, although petroglyphs have also been recently rediscovered. Rock arts, elaborate stone tools, and potteries were also prevalent.

This early period was followed by the art styles of various Korean kingdoms and dynasties. In these periods, artists often adopted Chinese mode in their artworks. Yet, Koreans not merely adopted but likewise modified Chinese civilization with a native preference for unproblematic elegance, purity of nature and spontaneity. This filtering of Chinese styles later influenced Japanese artistic traditions, due to cultural and geographical circumstances.

The prehistory of Korean ends with the founding of the Three Kingdoms of Korea, which are documented in the Samguk Sagi, a 12th-century CE text written in Classical Chinese (the written linguistic communication of the literati in traditional Korea), every bit offset in the 1st century BCE; some mention of before history is also made in Chinese texts, similar the 3rd-century CE Sanguo Zhi.

Jeulmun period [edit]

Clearer evidence of culture emerges in the late Neolithic, known in Korea as the Jeulmun pottery period, with pottery similar to that establish in the next regions of China, busy with Z-shaped patterns. The earliest Neolithic sites with pottery remains, for example Osan-ri, engagement to 6000–4500 BCE.[xviii] This pottery is characterized past comb patterning, with the pot often having a pointed base. Ornaments from this time include masks made of shell, with notable finds at Tongsam-dong, Osan-ri, and Sinam-ri. Paw-shaped dirt figurines have been found at Nongpo-dong.[31]

Mumun period [edit]

Big Center Mumun (c. 800 BCE) storage vessel unearthed from a pit-business firm in or nigh Daepyeong

During the Mumun pottery menses, roughly between 1500 BCE and 300 BCE, agriculture expanded, and evidence of larger-scale political structures became apparent, equally villages grew and some burials became more elaborate. Megalithic tombs and dolmens throughout Korea date to this time. The pottery of the time is in a distinctive undecorated style. Many of these changes in style may have occurred due to immigration of new peoples from the northward, although this is a subject of argue.[32] At a number of sites in southern Korea there are rock fine art panels that are thought to date from this menstruation, mainly for stylistic reasons.[33]

While the exact date of the introduction of bronzework into Korea is also a thing of debate, it is articulate that statuary was being worked by about 700 BCE. Finds include stylistically distinctive daggers, mirrors, and belt buckles, with evidence by the 1st century BCE of a widespread, locally distinctive, bronzeworking civilization.[34]

Protohistoric Korea [edit]

The fourth dimension between 300 BCE and the founding and stabilization of the Three Kingdoms around 300 CE is characterized artistically and archaeologically past increasing merchandise with China and Japan, something that Chinese histories of the time corroborate. The expansionist Chinese invaded and established commanderies in northern Korea as early every bit the 1st century BCE; they were driven out by the fourth century CE.[35] The remains of some of these, peculiarly that of Lelang, well-nigh modernistic Pyongyang, have yielded many artifacts in a typical Han way.[36]

Chinese histories also record the beginnings of iron works in Korea in the 1st century BCE. Stoneware and kiln-fired pottery also appears to date from this time, although there is controversy over the dates.[37] Pottery of distinctly Japanese origin is found in Korea, and metalwork of Korean origin is found in northeastern Communist china.[38]

Steppes Art [edit]

Late 7th-century Scythian plaque of a leopard

Superb samples of Steppes fine art - mostly gilt jewellery and trappings for horse - are institute over a vast expanses of land stretching from Hungary to Mongolia. Dating from the period between the seventh and 3rd centuries BCE, the objects are ordinarily diminutive, equally may be expected from nomadic people always on the move. Art of the steppes is primarily an animal art, i.e., combat scenes involving several animals (real or imaginary) or single animal figures (such as golden stags) predominate. The best known of the various peoples involved are the Scythians, at the European end of the steppe, who were especially likely to bury aureate items.

Amidst the virtually famous finds was made in 1947, when the Soviet archaeologist Sergei Rudenko discovered a royal burial at Pazyryk, Altay Mountains, which featured - amongst many other important objects - the near aboriginal extant pile carpeting, probably made in Persia. Unusually for prehistoric burials, those in the northern parts of the area may preserve organic materials such as wood and textiles that ordinarily would disuse. Steppes people both gave and took influences from neighbouring cultures from Europe to China, and subsequently Scythian pieces are heavily influenced by ancient Greek style, and probably oft made past Greeks in Scythia.

Near East [edit]

The Ain Sakhri Lovers from modern Israel, is a pocket-size Natufian carving in calcite, from about nine,000 BCE. Effectually the aforementioned time, the boggling site of Göbekli Tepe in eastern Turkey was begun. During the starting time phase, belonging to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic A (PPNA), circles of massive but neatly shaped T-shaped stone pillars were erected – the world'due south oldest known megaliths.[39] More than 200 pillars in about 20 circles are currently known through geophysical surveys. Each pillar has a height of upwards to vi m (20 ft) and weighs up to 10 tons. They are fitted into sockets that were hewn out of the bedrock.[xl] In the second phase, belonging to the Pre-Pottery Neolithic B (PPNB), the erected pillars are smaller and stood in rectangular rooms with floors of polished lime. On the smoothed surfaces of the pillars there are reliefs of animals, abstract patterns, and some man figures.

By convention, prehistory in the Nearly Due east is taken to continue until the rise of the Achaemenid Empire in the sixth century BCE, although writing existed in the region from well-nigh 2,000 years earlier. On that basis the very rich and long tradition of the art of Mesopotamia, besides every bit Assyrian sculpture, Hittite art and many other traditions such as the Luristan bronzes all fall under prehistoric art, even if covered with texts extolling the ruler, every bit many Assyrian palace reliefs are.

Europe [edit]

Stone Age [edit]

The Art of the Upper Paleolithic includes carvings on antler and bone, especially of animals, as well equally the so-chosen Venus figurines and cavern paintings, discussed above. Despite a warmer climate, the Mesolithic period undoubtedly shows a falling-off from the heights of the preceding catamenia. Rock art is found in Scandinavia and northern Russia, and around the Mediterranean in eastern Spain and the primeval of the Rock Drawings in Valcamonica in northern Italia, just not in betwixt these areas.[41] [42] Examples of portable art include painted pebbles from the Azilian civilization which succeeded the Magdalenian, and patterns on utilitarian objects, like the paddles from Tybrind Vig, Kingdom of denmark. The Mesolithic statues of Lepenski Vir at the Fe Gate, Serbia appointment to the 7th millennium BCE and correspond either humans or mixtures of humans and fish. Simple pottery began to develop in various places, even in the absence of farming.

Mesolithic [edit]

Compared to the preceding Upper Paleolithic and the following Neolithic, at that place is rather less surviving fine art from the Mesolithic. The Stone fine art of the Iberian Mediterranean Basin, which probably spreads across from the Upper Paleolithic, is a widespread miracle, much less well known than the cavern-paintings of the Upper Paleolithic, with which information technology makes an interesting dissimilarity. The sites are at present more often than not cliff faces in the open air, and the subjects are at present mostly human rather than animal, with large groups of small figures; there are 45 figures at Roca dels Moros. Clothing is shown, and scenes of dancing, fighting, hunting and food-gathering. The figures are much smaller than the animals of Paleolithic fine art, and depicted much more schematically, though ofttimes in energetic poses.[43] A few small engraved pendants with pause holes and simple engraved designs are known, some from northern Europe in amber, and i from Starr Carr in Britain in shale.[44]

The rock fine art in the Urals appears to show similar changes after the Paleolithic, and the wooden Shigir Idol is a rare survival of what may well have been a very mutual material for sculpture. It is a plank of larch carved with geometric motifs, but topped with a human head. Now in fragments, it would obviously have been over v metres alpine when made.[45]

Neolithic [edit]

Map with distribution of statue-menhir in Europe.[1] Photos and pictures: 1y 4.-Bueno et al. 2005; 2.-Santonja y Santonja 1978; three.-Jorge 1999; 5.-Portela y Jiménez 1996; 6.-Romero 1981; 7.-Helgouach 1997; 8.- Tarrete 1997; 9, 10, 13, fourteen, 29, xxx, 31, 32.-Philippon 2002; 11.-Corboud y Curdy 2009; 12.-Muller 1997; 15, 16, 17, xviii, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23 Arnal 1976; 24 y 25.- Augusto 1972; 26 y 27.- Grosjean 1966; 34.- López et al. 2009.

In Central Europe, many Neolithic cultures, similar Linearbandkeramic, Lengyel and Vinča,[46] produced female person (rarely male person) and animal statues that can be chosen art, and elaborate pottery decoration in, for case, the Želiesovce and painted Lengyel style.

Megalithic (i.e., large stone) monuments are found in the Neolithic Era from Republic of malta to Portugal, through France, and across southern England to most of Wales and Ireland. They are also found in northern Deutschland and Poland, too equally in Egypt in the Sahara desert (at Nabta Playa and other sites). The all-time preserved of all temples and the oldest gratis standing structures are the Megalithic Temples of Malta. They start in the 5th millennium BC, though some authors speculate on Mesolithic roots. 1 of the all-time-known prehistoric sites is Stonehenge, part of the Stonehenge World Heritage Site which contains hundreds of monuments and archaeological sites. Monuments have been found throughout most of Western and Northern Europe, notably at Carnac, France.

Archway stone with megalithic art at Newgrange

The big mound tomb at Newgrange, Ireland, dating to around 3200 BC, has its entrance marked with a massive stone carved with a complex pattern of spirals. The mound at nearby Knowth has large flat rocks with rock engravings on their vertical faces all around its circumference, for which various meanings take been suggested, including depictions of the local valley, and the oldest known image of the Moon. Many of these monuments were megalithic tombs, and archaeologists speculate that most accept religious significance. Knowth is reputed to have approximately one third of all megalithic fine art in Western Europe.

In the central Alps, the Camunni made some 350,000 petroglyphs: see Rock Drawings in Valcamonica.

Statuary Historic period [edit]

During the 3rd millennium BCE, the Bronze Historic period began in Europe, bringing with it a new medium for art. The increased efficiency of bronze tools too meant an increase in productivity, which led to a surplus — the beginning pace in the creation of a grade of artisans. Considering of the increased wealth of society, luxury goods began to be created, especially decorated weapons.

Examples include ceremonial bronze helmets, ornamental ax-heads and swords, elaborate instruments such as lurer, and other ceremonial objects without a practical purpose, such as the oversize Oxborough Dirk. Special objects were made in gilded; many more aureate objects have survived from Western and Cardinal Europe than from the Iron Age, many mysterious and strange objects ranging from lunulas, plainly an Irish speciality, the Mold Greatcoat and Aureate hats. Pottery from Primal Europe tin can be elaborately shaped and decorated. Rock art, showing scenes from the religious rituals have been constitute in many areas, for instance in Bohuslän, Sweden and the Val Camonica in northern Italy.

In the Mediterranean, the Minoan civilization was highly developed, with palace complexes from which sections of frescos have been excavated. Contemporary Ancient Egyptian fine art and that of other advanced Well-nigh Eastern cultures tin no longer be treated as "prehistoric".

Fe Age [edit]

The Atomic number 26 Age saw the development of anthropomorphic sculptures, such as the warrior of Hirschlanden, and the statue from the Glauberg, Germany. Hallstatt artists in the early Fe Historic period favored geometric, abstract designs perhaps influenced by trade links with the Classical world.

The more than elaborate and curvilinear La Tène manner adult in Europe in the subsequently Fe Age from a center in the Rhine valley but it before long spread across the continent. The rich chieftain classes appear to take encouraged ostentation and Classical influences such as bronze drinking vessels adjure to a new mode for wine drinking. Communal eating and drinking were an of import part of Celtic society and culture and much of their fine art was often expressed through plates, knives, cauldrons and cups. Equus caballus tack and weaponry were also decorated. Mythical animals were a common motif along with religious and natural subjects and their delineation is a mix between the naturalistic and the stylized. Megalithic fine art was nevertheless sometimes practiced, examples include the carved limestone pillars of the sanctuary at Entremont in modern-day France. Personal adornment included torc necklaces whilst the introduction of coinage provided a farther opportunity for artistic expression. The coins of this menstruation are derivatives of Greek and Roman types, but showing the more exuberant Celtic artistic fashion.

A 1st century BCE mirror found in Desborough, England, showing the screw and trumpet motif

The famous belatedly 4th century BCE Waldalgesheim chariot burial in the Rhineland produced many fine examples of La Tène fine art including a bronze flagon and bronze plaques with repoussé human figures. Many pieces had curvy, organic styles though to exist derived from Classical tendril patterns.

In much of western Europe elements of this creative style can be discerned surviving in the art and architecture of the Roman colonies. In item in Great britain and Ireland at that place is a tenuous continuity through the Roman period, enabling Celtic motifs to resurface with new vigour in the Christian Insular fine art from the 6th century onwards.

The sophisticated Etruscan culture adult from the 9th to 2nd centuries, with considerable influence from the Greeks, before finally being absorbed past the Romans. Past the end of the period they had adult writing, but early Etruscan art can be chosen prehistoric.

Africa [edit]

Ancient Egypt falls outside the scope of this article; it had a close relationship with the Sudan in particular, known in this period as Nubia, where at that place were advanced cultures from the 4th millennium BCE, such as the "A-Group", "C-Group", and the Kingdom of Kush.

Southern Africa [edit]

In September 2018, scientists from the University of Bergen, the University of Bordeaux and the University of the Witwatersrand together reported the discovery of the earliest known drawing past Man sapiens at Blombos Cave, S Africa which is estimated to exist 73,000 years old, much earlier than the 43,000 years quondam artifacts understood to be the earliest known modern man drawings found previously.[2]

At that place is a meaning body of rock painting in the region around Matobo National Park of Republic of zimbabwe dating from as early as 6000 BCE to 500 CE.[47]

Pregnant San rock paintings be in the Waterberg area in a higher place the Palala River and around Drakensberg in S Africa, some of which are considered to derive from the menstruation 8000 BCE. These images are very clear and depict a variety of human and wild fauna motifs, especially antelope. There appears to exist a fairly continuous history of rock painting in this area; some of the fine art clearly dates into the 19th century. They include depictions of horses with riders, which were not introduced to the expanse until the 1820s.[48]

Namibia, in improver to the Apollo eleven Cave complex, has a significant array of San rock fine art virtually Twyfelfontein. This work is several thousand years old, and appears to finish with the arrival of pastoral tribes in the area.[49]

Horn of Africa [edit]

Laas Geel is a complex of caves and rock shelters in northwestern Somalia. Famous for their rock art, the caves are located in a rural area on the outskirts of Hargeisa. They incorporate some of the earliest known cave paintings in the Horn of Africa, many of which depict pastoral scenes. Laas Geel's rock art is estimated to date back to somewhere between nine,000–8,000 and three,000 BCE.

In 2008, archaeologists also announced the discovery of cave paintings in Somalia's northern Dhambalin region, which the researchers suggest includes 1 of the earliest known depictions of a hunter on horseback. The stone art is in the Ethiopian-Arabian style, dated to 1000 to 3000 BCE.[l] [51]

Other prehistoric art in the Horn region include stone megaliths and engravings, some of which are 3,500 years old. The town of Dillo in Ethiopia has a hilltop covered with rock stelae. It is one of several such sites in southern Ethiopia dating from age[ clarification needed ] (10th-14th centuries).[52]

Saharan Africa [edit]

The early art of this region has been divided into v periods:

  • Bubalus Menstruum, roughly 12-viii kya
  • Round Head Period, roughly 10-eight kya
  • Pastoral Menstruum, roughly seven.5-four kya
  • Horse Menstruum, roughly three-2 kya
  • Camel Menstruum, 2,000 years ago to the present

Works of the Bubalus menstruum bridge the Sahara, with the finest work, carvings of naturalistically depicted megafauna, concentrated in the central highlands. The Round Head Flow is dominated by paintings of strangely shaped human forms, and few animals, suggesting the artists were foragers. These works are largely express to Tassili n'Ajjer and the Tadrart Acacus. Toward the end of the period, images of domesticated animals, as well as decorative clothing and headdresses announced. Pastoral Menses fine art was more than focused on domestic scenes, including herding and dancing. The quality of artwork declined, as figures became more simplified.[53]

The Equus caballus Period began in the eastern Sahara and spread west. Depictions from this period include carvings and paintings of horses, chariots, and warriors with metal weapons, although there are too frequent depictions of wild fauna such equally giraffes. Humans are generally depicted in a stylized way. Some of the chariot fine art bears resemblance to temple carvings from ancient Egypt. Occasionally, art panels are accompanied past Tifinagh script, nevertheless in use by the Berber people and the Tuareg today; however, modern Tuareg are generally unable to read these inscriptions. The final Camel period features carvings and paintings in which camels predominate, just likewise include humans with swords, and later, guns; the art of this fourth dimension is relatively rough.[54]

Due north Africa [edit]

The Americas [edit]

Northward America [edit]

Belonging in the Lithic stage, the oldest known art in the Americas is the Vero Beach bone, possibly a mammoth bone, etched with a profile of walking mammoth that dates back to 11,000 BCE.[55] The oldest known painted object in the Americas is the Cooper Bison Skull from 10,900 to 10,200 BCE.[56]

Mesoamerica [edit]

The ancient Olmec "Bird Vessel" and basin, both ceramic and dating to circa 1000 BC besides as other ceramics were produced in kilns capable of exceeding approximately 900 °C. The only other prehistoric culture known to have achieved such high temperatures is that of Aboriginal Egypt.[57]

Much Olmec art is highly stylized and uses an iconography cogitating of the religious meaning of the artworks. Some Olmec fine art, however, is surprisingly naturalistic, displaying an accuracy of depiction of homo beefcake mayhap equaled in the pre-Columbian New World only by the best Maya Archetype-era fine art. Olmec art-forms emphasize awe-inspiring statuary and modest jade carvings. A common theme is to exist found in representations of a divine jaguar. Olmec figurines were also institute abundantly through their flow.

South America [edit]

Lithic age art in S America includes Monte Alegre civilization rock paintings created at Caverna da Pedra Pintada dating back to 9250–8550 BCE.[58] [59] Guitarrero Cave in Republic of peru has the earliest known textiles in South America, dating to 8000 BCE.[sixty]

Peru and the central Andes [edit]

Lithic and preceramic periods [edit]

Peru, including an surface area of the central Andes stretching from the northern part of the country to northern Chile, has a rich cultural history, with evidence of human being habitation dating to roughly 10,000 BCE.[61] Prior to the emergence of ceramics in this region effectually 1850 BCE, cave paintings and chaplet have been establish. These finds include rock paintings that controversially date as far back as 9500 BCE in the Toquepala Caves.[62] Burying sites in Peru like i at Telarmachay as old equally 8600-7200 BCE independent testify of ritual burying, with red ocher and bead necklaces.[63]

The primeval ceramics that appear in Peru may have been imported from the Validivia region; ethnic pottery product almost certainly arrived in the highlands around 1800 BCE at Kotosh, and on the coast at La Florida c. 1700 BCE. Older calabash gourd vessels with human faces burned into them were establish at Huaca Prieta, a site dating to 2500-2000 BCE[64] Huaca Prieta likewise contained some early on patterned and dyed textiles made from twisted plant fibers.[65]

Initial Period and Start Horizon [edit]

The Initial Period in Fundamental Andean cultures lasted roughly from 1800 BCE to 900 BCE. Textiles from this time establish at Huaca Prieta are of astonishing complication, including images such equally venereal whose claws transform into snakes, and double-headed birds. Many of these images are similar to optical illusions, where which image dominates depends in part on which the viewer chooses to come across. Other portable artwork from this fourth dimension includes decorated mirrors, bone and shell jewelry, and unfired dirt female effigies.[66] Public architecture, including works estimated to require the move of more than 100,000 tons of stone, are to be found at sites like Kotosh, El Paraíso, Republic of peru, and La Galgada (archaeological site). Kotosh, a site in the Andean highlands, is especially noted every bit the site of the Temple of the Crossed Hands, in which there are two reliefs of crossed forearms, 1 pair male, i pair female.[67] Too of note is one of South America'southward largest ceremonial sites, Sechín Alto. This site's crowning piece of work is a twelve-story platform, with stones incised with military themes.[68] The architecture and art of the highlands, in particular, laid downwardly the background for the rise of the Chavín culture.[69]

The Chavín culture dominated the cardinal Andes during the First Horizon, beginning around 900 BCE, and is generally divided into ii stages. The first, running until about 500 BCE, represented a significant cultural unification of the highland and coastal cultures of the time. Imagery in all manner of art (textiles, ceramics, jewelry, and architectural) included sometimes fantastic imagery such as jaguars, snakes, and human–fauna composites, much of information technology seemingly inspired by the jungles to the e.[70]

The afterward phase of the Chavín civilization is primarily represented past a meaning architectural expansion of the Chavín de Huantar site effectually 500 BCE, accompanied by a set of stylistic changes. This expansion included, among other changes, over 40 big stone heads, whose reconstructed positions represent a transformation from homo to supernatural animal visages. Much of the other fine art at the complex from this time contains such supernatural imagery.[71] The portable fine art associated with this time included sophisticated metalworking, including alloying of metals and soldering.[72] Textiles institute at sites like Karwa clearly describe Chavín cultural influences,[73] and the Cupisnique fashion of pottery disseminated past the Chavín would set standards all across the region for later cultures.[74] (The vessel pictured at the top of this commodity, while from the later Moche culture, is representative of the stirrup-spouted vessels of the Chavín.)

Early Intermediate Period [edit]

A Paracas Curtain dating from 200 CE

The Early Intermediate Flow lasted from most 200 BCE to 600 CE. Belatedly in the First Horizon, the Chavín civilisation began to decline, and other cultures, predominantly in the coastal areas, began to develop. The earliest of these was the Paracas civilisation, centered on the Paracas Peninsula of central Peru. Active from 600 BCE to 175 BCE, their early work clearly shows Chavín influence, merely a locally distinctive way and technique developed. It was characterized by technical and time-consuming item work, visually colorful, and a profusion visual elements. Distinctive technical differences include painting on clay afterwards firing, and embroidery on textiles.[75] Ane notable notice is a mantle that was conspicuously used for training purposes; it shows obvious indications of experts doing some of the weaving, interspersed with less technically adept trainee work.[76]

The Nazca culture of southern Republic of peru, which is widely known for the enormous figures traced on the basis past the Nazca lines in southern Republic of peru, shared some similarities with the Paracas culture, merely techniques (and scale) differed. The Nazca painted their ceramics with slip, and as well painted their textiles.[77] Nazca ceramics featured a wide diversity of subjects, from the mundane to the fantastic, including utilitarian vessels and effigy figures. The Nazca also excelled at goldsmithing, and made pan pipes from dirt in a manner not unlike the pipes heard in music of the Andes today.[78]

The famous Nazca lines are accompanied past temple-like constructions (showing no sign of permanent habitation) and open plazas that presumably had ritual purposes related to the lines. The lines themselves are laid out on a sort of natural blackboard, where a thin layer of night stone covers lighter stone; the lines were thus created past just removing the top layer where desired, afterward using surveying techniques to lay out the design.[79]

In the north of Peru, the Moche culture dominated during this time. Also known every bit Mochica or Early Chimú, this warlike culture dominated the area until about 500 CE, plain using conquest to gain access to critical resources along the desert coast: arable land and water. Moche art is once again notably distinctive, expressive and dynamic in a fashion that many other Andean cultures were not. Cognition of the period has been notably expanded by finds like the pristine royal tombs at Sipán.[lxxx]

The Moche very obviously captivated some elements of the Chavín culture, merely also captivated ideas from smaller nearby cultures that they assimilated, such equally the Recuay culture and the Vicús.[81] They fabricated fully sculpted ceramic animal figures, worked gilded, and wove textiles. The fine art often featured everyday images, but seemingly ever with a ritual intent.[82]

In its later years, the Moche came under the influence of the expanding Huari empire. The Cerro Blanco site of Huaca del Sol appears to have been the Moche capital. Largely destroyed by natural events effectually 600 CE, it was further damaged by Spanish conquistadors searching for gold, and continues with mod looters.[83]

Centre Horizon [edit]

Ponce monolith in the sunken courtyard of the Tiwanaku's Kalasasaya temple

The Middle Horizon lasted from 600 CE to 1000 CE, and was dominated by ii cultures: the Huari and the Tiwanaku. The Tiwanaku (also spelled Tiahuanaco) culture arose near Lake Titicaca (on the mod border between Republic of peru and Bolivia), while the Wari culture arose in the southern highlands of Peru. Both cultures appear to accept been influenced by the Pukara civilisation, which was active during the Early Intermediate in betwixt the master centers of the Wari and Tiwanaku.[84] These cultures both had wide-ranging influence, and shared some common features in their portable fine art, simply their monumental arts were somewhat distinctive.[85]

The awe-inspiring fine art of the Tiwanaku demonstrated technical prowess in stonework, including fine detailed reliefs, and monoliths such as the Ponce monolith (photo to the left), and the Sun Gate, both in the main Tiwanaku site. The portable art featured "portrait vessels", with figured heads on ceramic vessels, every bit well as natural imagery similar jaguars and raptors.[86] A full range of materials, from ceramics to textiles to woods, bone, and shell, were used in creative endeavours. Textiles with a weave of 300 threads per inch (80 threads per cm) accept been found at Tiwanaku sites.[87]

The Wari dominated an area from northern to central Peru, with their main center nearly Ayacucho. Their art is distinguished from the Tiwanaku style by the use of bolder colors and patterns.[88] Notable among Wari finds are tapestry garments, presumed to be made for priests or rulers to clothing, often bearing abstract geometric designs of pregnant complexity, but also bearing images of animals and figures.[89] Wari ceramics, also of high technical quality, are similar in many ways to those of the preceding cultures, where local influences from fallen cultures, like the Moche, are still somewhat evident. Metalwork, while rarely found due to its desirability by looters, shows elegant simplicity and, one time more than, a high level of workmanship.[90]

Late Intermediate Menses [edit]

Following the decline of the Wari and Tiwanaku, the northern and central coastal areas were somewhat dominated by the Chimú civilisation, which included notable subcultures like the Lambayeque (or Sicán) and Chancay cultures. To the s, coastal cultures dominated in the Ica region, and there was a meaning cultural crossroads at Pachacamac, virtually Lima.[91] These cultures would boss from well-nigh 1000 CE until the 1460s and 1470s, equally the Inca Empire began to take shape and eventually absorbed the geographically smaller nearby cultures.

Chimú and Sicán Cultures

The Chimú culture in particular was responsible for an extremely large number of artworks. Its capital metropolis, Chan Chan, appears to have independent building that appeared to function equally museums—they seem to take been used for displaying and preserving artwork. Much of the artwork from Chan Chan in particular has been looted, some past the Spanish after the Spanish conquest.[91] The art from this fourth dimension at times displays amazing complexity, with "multimedia" works that require artists working together in a diversity of media, including materials believed to have come up from as far abroad every bit Central America. Items of increasing splendor or value were produced, manifestly as the society became increasing stratified.[92] At the same, the quality of some of the work declined, as need for pieces pushed production rates up and values downwardly.[93]

The Sicán culture flourished from 700 CE to about 1400 CE, although information technology came under political domination of the Chimú around 1100 CE, at which time many of its artists may have moved to Chan Chan. There was significant copperworking by the Sicán, including what seems to exist a sort of currency based on copper objects that look like axes.[94] Artwork includes burial masks, beakers and metallic vessels that previous cultures traditionally made of clay. The metalwork of the Sicán was particularly sophisticated, with innovations including repoussé and shell inlay. Canvas metal was too frequently used to cover other works.[95]

Prominent in Sicán iconography is the Sicán deity, which appears on all manner of piece of work, from the portable to the monumental. Other imagery includes geometric and wave patterns, equally well as scenes of fishing and shell diving.[96]

Chancay culture Chancay culture, earlier information technology was subsumed by the Chimú, did not feature notable monumental fine art. Ceramics and textiles were made, simply the quality and skill level was uneven. Ceramics are by and large blackness on white, and often suffer from flaws similar poor firing, and drips of the sideslip used for color; however, fine examples exist. Textiles are overall of a higher quality, including the use of painted weaves and tapestry techniques, and were produced in large quantities.[97] The color palette of the Chancay was not overly bold: golds, browns, white, and scarlet predominate.[98]

Pachacamac Pachacamac is a temple site south of Lima, Peru that was an of import pilgrimage center into Castilian colonial times. The site boasts temple constructions from several periods, culminating in Inca constructions that are still in relatively good condition. The temples were painted with murals depicting plants and animals. The main temple contained a carved wooden sculpture akin to a totem pole.[98]

Ica civilisation The Ica region, which had been dominated by the Nazca, was fragmented into several smaller political and civilization groups. The pottery produced in this region was of the highest quality at the fourth dimension, and its aesthetics would be adopted past the Inca when they conquered the area.[99]

Late Horizon and Inca culture [edit]

An 1860 map of Cusco. The puma shape is discernible, with the head at the upper left and the tail at the lower right.

The twelve angle stone, in the Hatum Rumiyoc street of Cusco, is an example of Inca masonry.

This time period represents the era in which the civilization of the central Andes is almost completely dominated by the Inca Empire, which began its expansion in 1438. It lasted until the Spanish conquest in 1533. The Inca absorbed much technical skill from the cultures they conquered, and disseminated it, along with standard shapes and patterns, throughout their area of influence, which extended from Quito, Ecuador to Santiago, Chile. Inca stonework is notably proficient; behemothic stones are ready then tightly without mortar that a pocketknife blade will not fit in the gap.[100] Many of the Inca'south awe-inspiring structures deliberately echoed the natural environment around them; this is particularly axiomatic in some of the structures at Machu Picchu.[101] The Inca laid the urban center of Cusco in the shape of a puma, with the head of the puma at Sacsayhuaman,[102] a shape that is still discernible in aerial photographs of the metropolis today.

The iconography of Inca art, while clearly drawing from its many predecessors, is still recognizably Inca. Bronzework owes a clear debt to the Chimú, as do a number of cultural traditions: the finest appurtenances were reserved to the rulers, who wore the finest textiles, and ate and drank from gold and argent vessels.[103] Every bit a upshot, Inca metalwork was relatively rare, and an obvious source of plunder for the acquisition Castilian.

Textiles were widely prized inside the empire, in role as they were somewhat more than portable in the far-flung empire.[104]

Ceramics were made in large quantities, and, as with other media, in standardized shapes and patterns. One common shape is the urpu, a distinctive urn shape that came in a wide diverseness of standard capacities, much every bit mod storage containers do.[105] In spite of this standardization, many local areas retained some distinctive aspects of their civilization in the works they produced; ceramics produced in areas under significant Chimú control prior to the Inca rule still retain characteristics indicative of that style.[106]

Post-obit the Spanish conquest, the art of the central Andes was significantly afflicted past the conflict and diseases brought by the Spanish. Early colonial period art, began to show influences of both Christianity and Inca religious and artistic ideas, and somewhen also began to embrace new techniques brought past the conquerors, including oil painting on canvas.[107]

Early on ceramics in northern Southward America [edit]

The earliest evidence of decorated pottery in Due south America is to be found in two places. A variety of sites in the Santarém region of Brazil comprise ceramic sherds dating to a period between 5000 and 3000 BCE.[108] Sites in Republic of colombia, at Monsú and San Jacinto contained pottery finds in different styles, and appointment equally far dorsum every bit 3500 BCE.[109] This is an expanse of active enquiry and subject to alter.[110] The ceramics were decorated with curvilinear incisions. Another ancient site at Puerto Hormiga in the Bolívar Department of Republic of colombia dating to 3100 BCE independent pottery fragments that included figured animals in a manner related to subsequently Barrancoid cultural finds in Colombia and Venezuela.[109] Valdivia, Republic of ecuador also has a site dated to roughly 3100 BCE containing busy fragments, too equally figurines, many represent nude females. The Valdivian style stretched as far southward as northern Republic of peru,[111] and may, co-ordinate to Lavallée, withal yield older artifacts.[108]

By 2000 BCE, pottery was evident in eastern Venezuela. The La Gruta style, often painted in red or white, included incised animate being figures in the ceramic, as well as ceramic vessels shaped as animal effigies. The Rancho Peludo manner of western Venezuela featured relatively unproblematic textile-type decorations and incisions.[111] Finds in the key Andes dating to 1800 BCE and later announced to exist derived from the Valdivian tradition of Ecuador.[112]

Early art in eastern Due south America [edit]

Relatively picayune is known nearly the early on settlement of much of S America east of the Andes. This is due to the lack of rock (more often than not required for leaving durable artifacts), and a jungle environment that rapidly recycles organic materials. Beyond the Andean regions, where the inhabitants were more clearly related to the early cultures of Peru, early finds are generally limited to coastal areas and those areas where at that place are stone outcrops. While there is evidence of man habitation in northern Brazil as early every bit 8000 BCE,[113] and rock art of unknown (or at best uncertain) age, ceramics appear to be the earliest artistic artifacts. The Mina civilisation of Brazil (3000–1600 BCE) had simple circular vessels with a red wash, that were stylistic predecessors to later Bahia and Guyanese cultures.[111]

Southern Due south America [edit]

The southern reaches of South America show evidence of human home as far back as 10,000 BCE. A site at Arroio exercise Fosseis on the pampa in southern Brazil has shown reliable testify to that time,[114] and the Tierra del Fuego at the southern tip of the continent has been occupied since 7000 BCE.[115] Artistic finds are scarce; in some parts of Patagonia ceramics were never made, just existence introduced by contact with Europeans.[116]

Oceania [edit]

Australia [edit]

From earliest times Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders have been creating distinctive patterns of art. Much of the art is transitory, drawn in sand or on the human torso to illustrate a place, a totem, or a cultural story. Early surviving artworks are more often than not rock paintings. Some are chosen X-ray paintings because they show the basic and organs of the animals they depict. Some Aboriginal art appears as abstract to mod viewers; Aboriginal art employs geometrical figures, dots and lines to present the story being told.

The Gwion Gwion rock art are 1 of many styles of stone art establish in Western Australia. They are predominantly human figures drawn in fine item with authentic anatomical proportioning. They are usually dated to be at least 17,000 years erstwhile, and there have been suggestions they are every bit much every bit 70,000 years erstwhile.[117] The Sydney rock engravings are besides a prominent rock fine art site in the country.[118]

Polynesia [edit]

The natives of Polynesia take a distinct artistic heritage. While many of their artifacts were made with organic materials and thus lost to history, some of their about hit achievements survive in clay and rock. Among these are numerous pottery fragments from western Oceania, from the belatedly 2d millennium BCE. Also, the natives of Polynesia left scattered around their islands Petroglyphs, stone platforms or Marae, and sculptures of ancestor figures, the well-nigh famous of which are the Moai of Easter Island.

Come across also [edit]

  • Çatalhüyük
  • Listing of Stone Age art
  • Nevalı Çori
  • Prehistoric music
  • Prehistoric organized religion

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ "The term "prehistoric" ceases to be valid some thousands of years B.C. in the Center East merely remains a warranted description down to nearly 500 A.D. in Ireland", Review past "A. T. L." of Prehistoric Fine art by T. G. E. Powell, The Journal of the Regal Society of Antiquaries of Republic of ireland, Vol. 97, No. one (1967), p. 95, Royal Society of Antiquaries of Republic of ireland, JSTOR
  2. ^ a b c d St. Fleur, Nicholas (12 September 2018). "Oldest Known Drawing by Human Hands Discovered in South African Cave". The New York Times . Retrieved fifteen September 2018.
  3. ^ "Shell 'art' made 300,000 years before humans evolved - New Scientist". New Scientist.
  4. ^ a b Joordens, Josephine C. A.; d'Errico, Francesco; Wesselingh, Frank P.; Munro, Stephen; de Vos, John; Wallinga, Jakob; Ankjærgaard, Christina; Reimann, Tony; Wijbrans, January R.; Kuiper, Klaudia F.; Mücher, Herman J. (2015). "Homo erectus at Trinil on Java used shells for tool production and engraving". Nature. 518 (7538): 228–231. Bibcode:2015Natur.518..228J. doi:10.1038/nature13962. ISSN 1476-4687. PMID 25470048. S2CID 4461751.
  5. ^ New York Times
  6. ^ The Metropolitan Museum of New York City Introduction to Prehistoric Art Retrieved 2012-five-12
  7. ^ Chase, pp. 145-146
  8. ^ Henshilwood, Christopher; Niekerk, Karen Loise van. "Due south Africa's Blombos cave is domicile to the primeval drawing by a human". The Conversation . Retrieved 2020-02-17 .
  9. ^ "Discovery of the earliest drawing". ScienceDaily . Retrieved 2020-02-17 .
  10. ^ D. 50. Hoffmann; C. D. Standish; K. García-Diez; P. B. Pettitt; J. A. Milton; J. Zilhão; J. J. Alcolea-González; P. Cantalejo-Duarte; H. Collado; R. de Balbín; M. Lorblanchet; J. Ramos-Muñoz; K.-Ch. Weniger; A. Westward. Yard. State highway (2018). "U-Th dating of carbonate crusts reveals Neandertal origin of Iberian cave art". Science. 359 (6378): 912–915. Bibcode:2018Sci...359..912H. doi:10.1126/science.aap7778. PMID 29472483.
  11. ^ Marris, Emma (22 February 2018). "Neanderthal artists made oldest-known cave paintings". Nature. doi:x.1038/d41586-018-02357-8.
  12. ^ Feehly, Conor (6 July 2021). "Cute Bone Carving From 51,000 Years Agone Is Changing Our View of Neanderthals". ScienceAlert . Retrieved 6 July 2021.
  13. ^ Leder, Dirk; et al. (v July 2021). "A 51,000-twelvemonth-sometime engraved bone reveals Neanderthals' capacity for symbolic behaviour". Nature Ecology & Evolution. 594 (9): 1273–1282. doi:x.1038/s41559-021-01487-z. PMID 34226702. S2CID 235746596. Retrieved half dozen July 2021.
  14. ^ a b Zimmer, Carl (seven Nov 2018). "In Cave in Borneo Jungle, Scientists Find Oldest Figurative Painting in the World - A cave cartoon in Borneo is at least xl,000 years old, raising intriguing questions near creativity in ancient societies". The New York Times . Retrieved 8 Nov 2018.
  15. ^ a b Aubert, Yard.; et al. (7 November 2018). "Palaeolithic cave art in Borneo". Nature. 564 (7735): 254–257. Bibcode:2018Natur.564..254A. doi:10.1038/s41586-018-0679-ix. PMID 30405242. S2CID 53208538.
  16. ^ "Indonesian Cave Paintings As Onetime As Europe'due south Aboriginal Art". NPR.org. 8 October 2014.
  17. ^ Portal, p. 25
  18. ^ a b Portal, p. 26
  19. ^ Coulson, pp. 150–155
  20. ^ Thackeray.
  21. ^ Azerbaijan, Azerbaijan (2005). Republic of azerbaijan. Cavendish Square Publishing. pp. xviii. ISBN9780761420118.
  22. ^ Azerbaijan: Mosques, Turrets, Palaces, Azerbaijan: Mosques, Turrets, Palaces (1979). Azerbaijan: Mosques, Turrets, Palaces. Corvina Kiadó. p. 8. ISBN9789631303216. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (link)
  23. ^ A Historical Atlas of Azerbaijan (Historical Atlases of Southward Asia, Central Asia, and The Heart Eastward), A Historical Atlas of Azerbaijan (Historical Atlases of Southward Asia, Central Asia, and The Middle East) (2004). A Historical Atlas of Azerbaijan (Historical Atlases of South asia, Central Asia, and The Middle East). Rosen Pub Group. p. xi. ISBN978-0823944972. {{cite book}}: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors listing (link)
  24. ^ "The Rock Engravings of Gobustan". donsmaps.com . Retrieved 2019-02-07 .
  25. ^ Pre-Columbian Trans-Oceanic Contact. Lulu.com. 2016. p. 98. ISBN978-1329972162. [ self-published source ]
  26. ^ Mathpal, Yashodhar (1984). Prehistoric Painting Of Bhimbetka. Abhinav Publications. p. 220. ISBN9788170171935.
  27. ^ Tiwari, Shiv Kumar (2000). Riddles of Indian Rockshelter Paintings. Sarup & Sons. p. 189. ISBN9788176250863.
  28. ^ Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka (PDF). UNESCO. 2003. p. xvi.
  29. ^ Mithen, Steven (2011). After the Ice: A Global Human History, twenty,000 - 5000 BC. Orion. p. 524. ISBN9781780222592.
  30. ^ Javid, Ali; Jāvīd, ʻAlī; Javeed, Tabassum (2008). World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. Algora Publishing. p. 19. ISBN9780875864846.
  31. ^ Portal, p. 27
  32. ^ Portal, p. 29
  33. ^ Portal, p. 33
  34. ^ Portal, pp. 34–35
  35. ^ Portal, p. 38
  36. ^ Portal, p. 39
  37. ^ Portal, p. forty
  38. ^ Portal, p. 41
  39. ^ Sagona, Claudia (2015-08-25). The Archaeology of Republic of malta. Cambridge University Press. p. 47. ISBN9781107006690 . Retrieved 25 November 2016.
  40. ^ Curry, Andrew (Nov 2008). "Gobekli Tepe: The Earth'due south Commencement Temple?". Smithsonian.com. Retrieved August two, 2013.
  41. ^ Sandars, 75-98
  42. ^ "Rock Drawings in Valcamonica" (PDF).
  43. ^ Sandars, Nancy Chiliad., Prehistoric Fine art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, now Yale, History of Art), pp. 87-96, 1968 (nb 1st edn.)
  44. ^ "11,000 year old pendant is earliest known Mesolithic art in U.k.", University of York
  45. ^ Geggel, Laura (Apr 25, 2018). "This Eerie, Human-Similar Figure Is Twice As Old As Egypt'due south Pyramids". Alive Science . Retrieved Apr 28, 2018.
  46. ^ Borić, Dušan; Hanks, Bryan; Šljivar, Duško; Kočić, Miroslav; Bulatović, Jelena; Griffiths, Seren; Doonan, Roger; Jacanović, Dragan (June 2018). "Enclosing the Neolithic World: A Vinča Culture Enclosed and Fortified Settlement in the Balkans". Electric current Anthropology. 59 (3): 336–345. doi:10.1086/697534. hdl:11573/1545302. S2CID 150068332.
  47. ^ Coulson, p. 86
  48. ^ Coulson, pp. 80–82
  49. ^ Unesco Earth Heritage designation.
  50. ^ Mire, Sada (2008). "The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Fine art Site, Somaliland". African Archaeological Review. 25 (3–4): 153–168. doi:10.1007/s10437-008-9032-2. S2CID 162960112. Archived from the original on 27 June 2013. Retrieved 22 June 2013.
  51. ^ Alberge, Dalya (17 September 2010). "Great britain archaeologist finds cave paintings at 100 new African sites". The Guardian . Retrieved 25 June 2013.
  52. ^ Coulson, p. 147
  53. ^ Coulson, pp. 156–160
  54. ^ Coulson, pp. 160–162,205
  55. ^ "Ice Age Art from Florida." Past Horizons. 23 June 2011 (retrieved 23 June 2011)
  56. ^ Bement, Leland C. Bison hunting at Cooper site: where lightning bolts drew thundering herds. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 1999: 37, 43, 176. ISBN 978-0-8061-3053-8.
  57. ^ Friedman, Florence Dunn (September 1998). "Ancient Egyptian faience". Archived from the original on 2004-10-20. Retrieved 2008-12-22 .
  58. ^ Wilford, John Noble. Scientist at Work: Anna C. Roosevelt; Sharp and To the Signal In Amazonia. New York Times. 23 April 1996
  59. ^ "Dating a Paleoindian Site in the Amazon in Comparison with Clovis Culture." Science. March 1997: Vol. 275, no. 5308, pp. 194801952. (retrieved 1 Nov 2009)
  60. ^ Stone-Miller, 17
  61. ^ Lavallée, p. 88
  62. ^ Lavallée, p. 94
  63. ^ Lavallée, p. 115
  64. ^ Lavallée, p. 186
  65. ^ Bruhns, p. eighty
  66. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. xix–20
  67. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 21
  68. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 27
  69. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 22
  70. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 28–29
  71. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 40
  72. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 44
  73. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 46
  74. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 49
  75. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 50
  76. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 58
  77. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 67
  78. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 74–75
  79. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 78–82
  80. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 83
  81. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 88
  82. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 86
  83. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 92
  84. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 121–123
  85. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 119
  86. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 131–134
  87. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 136
  88. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 138–139
  89. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 146–148
  90. ^ Rock-Miller, pp. 149–150
  91. ^ a b Rock-Miller, p. 151
  92. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 153
  93. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 154
  94. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 156
  95. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 156–158
  96. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 160
  97. ^ Stone-Miller, pp. 175–177
  98. ^ a b Rock-Miller, p. 179
  99. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 180
  100. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 181
  101. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 190
  102. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 194
  103. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 186
  104. ^ Rock-Miller, p. 209
  105. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 215
  106. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 216
  107. ^ Stone-Miller, p. 217
  108. ^ a b Lavallée, p. 182
  109. ^ a b Bruhns, pp. 116–117
  110. ^ Lavallée, pp. 176–182
  111. ^ a b c Bruhns, pp. 117–118
  112. ^ Bruhns, p. 119
  113. ^ Lavallée, p. 113
  114. ^ Lavallée, p. 108
  115. ^ Lavallée, p. 112
  116. ^ Lavallée, p. 187
  117. ^ Bradshaw Foundation. "The Bradshaw Paintings - Australian Rock Art Archive". Bradshaw Foundation.
  118. ^ Bowdler, Sandra. "Balls Head: the excavation of a Port Jackson rock shelter. Records of the Australian Museum 28(7): 117–128, plates 17–21. [4 October 1971]" (PDF). AUSTRALIAN MUSEUM SCIENTIFIC PUBLICATIONS. Australian Museum. Retrieved Apr 28, 2012.

References [edit]

  • Arbib, Michael A (2006). Activity to language via the mirror neuron system: The Mirror Neuron Arrangement. Cambridge University Press. ISBN978-0-521-84755-ane.
  • Bailey, Douglass (2005). Prehistoric Figurines: Representation and Corporeality in the Neolithic. Routledge Publishers. ISBN978-0-415-33152-iv.
  • Bruhns, Karen O (1994). Ancient South America . Cambridge Academy Printing. ISBN978-0-521-27761-seven.
  • Chase, Philip Grand (2005). The Emergence of Civilization: The Evolution of a Uniquely Homo Way of Life. Birkhäuser. ISBN978-0-387-30512-seven.
  • Coulson, David; Campbell, Alec (2001). African Rock Art. Harry N. Abrams, Inc. ISBN978-0-8109-4363-half-dozen.
  • Lavallée, Danièle (1995). The Showtime South Americans. Bahn, Paul Yard (trans.). University of Utah Printing. ISBN978-0-87480-665-six.
  • Portal, Jane (2000). Korea: Art and Archeology . Thames & Hudson. ISBN9780500282021.
  • Sandars, Nancy K., Prehistoric Art in Europe, Penguin (Pelican, at present Yale, History of Fine art), 1968 (nb 1st edn.)
  • Stone-Miller, Rebecca (1995). Fine art of the Andes . Thames and Hudson. ISBN978-0-500-20286-ix.
  • Thackeray, Anne I.; Thackeray, JF; Beaumont, PB; Vogel, JC; et al. (1981-10-02). "Dated Stone Engravings from Wonderwerk Cavern, South Africa". Scientific discipline. 214 (4516): 64–67. Bibcode:1981Sci...214...64T. doi:10.1126/science.214.4516.64. PMID 17802575. S2CID 29714094.
  • "Unesco Earth Heritage annunciation on Twyfelfontein". Retrieved 2008-11-13 .

External links [edit]

  • RockArtScandinavia Tanums Hällristningsmuseum Underslös. Rock art inquiry eye.
  • EuroPreArt database of European Prehistoric Fine art
  • Lepenski Vir
  • Göbekli Tepe, in German
  • Nevali Cori
  • Prehistoric Fine art Expressions from Bharat
  • http://witcombe.sbc.edu/ARTHprehistoric.html#full general
  • http://donsmaps.com/combarelles.html
  • Man Timeline (Interactive) – Smithsonian, National Museum of Natural History (August 2016).

lynchsoments.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistoric_art

0 Response to "Art From the Neolithic Period to the Art of the Ancient Near East"

Post a Comment

Subscribe to: Post Comments (Atom)

Iklan Atas Artikel

Iklan Tengah Artikel 1

Iklan Tengah Artikel 2

Iklan Bawah Artikel